THE ROLE OF RECYCLING
Chapter 6. Designing a New Materials Economy
Lester R. Brown, Eco-Economy: Building an Economy for the Earth
(W.W. Norton & Co., NY: 2001).
As the economy metabolizes more and more
metals and other raw materials, the damage mounts. Although recycling
is typically justified as an economically attractive alternative
to rising landfill costs, it also greatly reduces ecosystem damage.
As noted earlier, steel, copper, gold, and aluminum mining and processing
account for much of the carbon emissions, pollutants, and landscape
devastation associated with the materials economy. For recycling,
the three materials to focus on are steel, copper, and aluminum,
since the high value of gold virtually ensures that it is not discarded.
In terms of recycling potential, steelwith
world output of 833 million tons per yearleads
the list. Long a measure of industrialization, steel use is dominated
by a few manufacturing industries, importantly automobiles and household
appliances, and by the construction industry. Among the various
products using steel in the United States, the highest rate of recycling
is for automobiles. Cars today are simply too valuable to be left
to rust in out-of-the-way junkyards. In the United States, nearly
all discarded automobiles are recycled.46
The recycling rate for household appliances is estimated at 77 percent.
For the construction industry, the recycling of steel beams and
plates is even higher, some 95 percent; the steel used in reinforcing
rods embedded in concrete, however, is not so easily recycled. For
these and other construction uses, the recycling rate is 45 percent,
according to the Steel Recycling Institute. For steel cans, the
U.S. recycling rate in 1999 of 58 percent can be traced in part
to municipal recycling campaigns launched in the late 1980s.47
In the United States, roughly 58 percent of all steel produced in
1999 was from scrap, leaving 42 percent to be produced from virgin
ore. (See Figure 6-2.) Steel recycling started climbing more than
a generation ago with the advent of the electric arc furnace, a
highly efficient method of producing steel from scrap. Steel produced
from scrap uses only one third as much energy as that produced from
virgin ore. And since it does not require any mining of ore, it
completely eliminates one source of environmental disruption. In
the United States, Italy, and Spain, electric arc furnaces now account
for half or more of all steel production. Over the last two decades,
the U.S. steel industry has shifted from using largely virgin ore
to feeding primarily on scrap metal.48
It is easier for countries with mature industrial economies and
stable populations to get most of their steel from recycled scrap
than it is for developing countries, simply because the stock of
steel embedded in the economy is essentially fixed. The number of
household appliances, the fleet of automobiles, and the stock of
buildings is increasing little or none. In countries in the early
stages of industrialization, however, the creation of infrastructurewhether
factories, bridges, high-rise buildings, or transportation, including
automobiles, buses, and rail carsleaves
little steel for recycling.
As the U.S. steel industry has shifted to primary reliance on scrap,
its geographic distribution has shifted. Once concentrated in western
Pennsylvania, where there was an abundance of both iron ore and
coal, the modern industry that uses electric arc minimills feeding
on scrap is widely scattered across the country, in North Carolina,
Nebraska, and Texas, for example. Minimills supply steel to local
industries, enabling local communities to rely primarily on steel
already in the system.49
The other metal with a pervasive environmental effect is aluminum.
Some aluminum products are easily recycled. Others are not. For
example, within the food industry, the aluminum foil used to package
prepared frozen meals is not readily recycled. Aluminum beverage
cans, by contrast, are much easier to take care of. In the United
States, some 64 billion of the 102 billion aluminum cans used in
1998 were recycled. Yet this recycling rate of 63 percent is low
compared with some other countries. In Japan, the current leader,
79 percent of aluminum beverage cans are recycled. Brazil is close
behind, with 77 percent. In Japan, aluminum recycling is being driven
by a scarcity of sites for garbage, whereas in many developing countries
it is being driven by widespread unemployment.50
In Brazil, where unemployment is high, the recycling of aluminum
beverage cans has become a major source of employment. An estimated
150,000 Brazilians make a living by collecting used beverage cans
and taking them to recycling centers, earning $200 a month, compared
with the minimum wage of $81 a month. Forty-five used cans can be
traded for 1 kilogram of black beans, and 35 cans for a kilogram
of rice. The system that has evolved in Brazil for recycling aluminum
cans now employs more people than the automotive industry does.51
Despite the high recycling rate for cans, the overall aluminum recycling
rate worldwide is not high. In the United States, the scrap share
of aluminum production in 1998 was 33 percent. Roughly half of this
was from scrap generated at the plants where various aluminum products
are manufactured. Thus the amount recycled from consumer products
containing aluminum was quite small. One reason for this is that
investing aluminum in cars and airplanes is relatively recent, thus
restricting the amount currently available for recycling. In contrast
to worldwide steel use, which has increased little since 1973, aluminum
production is still rising.52
The encouraging news is that the recycling of both steel and aluminum
is increasing. The discouraging news is that neither is doing so
fast enough. Far too much aluminum and steel end up in landfills.
As noted earlier, in the eco-economy societies will rely heavily
on raw materials already in the system. For example, in the small,
densely populated state of New Jersey, there are eight steel minimills
that rely almost exclusively on scrap and 13 paper mills that use
only waste paper. Collectively, these steel mills and paper plants
market more than $1 billion worth of products each year, providing
both local jobs and tax revenues. Ironically, these thriving steel
and paper mills exist in a state that has no iron mines and little
forested area.53
In an eco-economy, electric arc steel minimills that efficiently
convert scrap steel into finished steel will largely replace iron
mines. Advanced industrial economies will come to rely primarily
on the stock of materials already in the economy rather than on
virgin raw materials. For metals such as steel and aluminum, the
losses through use will be minimal. With the appropriate policies,
metalonce
it is invested in the economycan
be used indefinitely.
ENDNOTES:
46. Steel production from USGS, op. cit. note 4; automobile recycling
rate from Woods, op. cit. note 10.
47. Woods, op. cit. note 10.
48. Figure 6-2 from Bill Heenan, Steel Recycling Institute, Pittsburgh,
PA, e-mail to Earth Policy Institute, spring 2001; 33 percent from
Gary Gardner, "Steel Recycling Rising," in Lester R. Brown et al.,
Vital Signs 1995 (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1995), pp. 128-29;
Italy and Spain from Hal Kane, "Steel Recycling Rising Slowly,"
in Lester R. Brown et al., Vital Signs 1992 (New York: W.W. Norton
& Company, 1992), p. 98.
49. Minimills in Kane, op. cit. note 16, pp. 78-79; "Government,
Steel Maker Reach $98 Million Environmental Settlement," Cable News
Network, 20 December 2000.
50. Can recycling in the United States from The Aluminum Association,
Inc., "Aluminum Can Reclamation," fact sheet (Washington, DC: 2000);
Fumiko Fujisaki, "Japan Aluminum Can Recycling Ratio up to 78.5
pct," Reuters, 14 July 2000; "Brazil's Poor Hunt Aluminum Cans as
Swap for Food," Reuters, 17 October 2000.
51. "Brazil's Poor Hunt Aluminum Cans," op. cit. note 50.
52. The Aluminum Association, op. cit. note 19.
53. Brenda Platt and David Morris, The Economic Benefits of Recycling
(Washington, DC: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, January 1993).
Copyright
© 2001 Earth Policy Institute
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